修辞学复习

修辞学复习

（一） Definition

1. Choice of words

(1). Denotation and connotation

Denotation is the specific, direct, and literal meaning of a word.

Connotation is the associative or suggestive meaning of a word.

(2). General words and specific words

appeal to the imagination, a vivid image, more informative and persuasive

(3). Abstract words and concrete words

(4). Long words and short words

2. Choice of sentences

(1) Simple sentences

(2) Compound sentences

(3) Complex sentences

(4) Compound-complex sentences

(5) Loose sentences

(6) Periodic sentences

(7) Long and short sentences

3. Figures of speech

(1) Phonetic figures of speech (choice of sounds)

a. Alliteration

It is the repetition of initial consonant in a sequence of (一系列的) words.

It is good for sound rhyme, musical effect and significant emphasis. It’s a great help to memory. By highlighting the sounds of words, alliteration catches the attention of the audience and makes the idea impressed deeply on the audience and thus easier for them to remember.

b. Assonance ['æs(ə)nəns] 半韵，谐音

It is the repetition or resemblance of vowel sounds in the stressed syllables of

a sequence of words, preceded and followed by different consonants as in “late and make”. Assonance also refers to the likeness of sound in a series of words, as in “fair and square”. It’s a partial- or half-rhyme.

It is often used in poetic language to create a musical rhythm for a particular effect of euphony. ['juːf(ə)nɪ] 悦耳之音

c. Consonance

It refers to the repetition of the final and identical consonants whose preceding vowels are different, words like sing— rang, dash— fish.

Consonance, like alliteration and assonance, is often employed in poetry.

d. Onomatopoeia [,ɒnə(ʊ)mætə'piːə] 拟声

It is a term used to describe the phenomenon of language sounding like the thing if refers to.

Onomatopoeia helps make description lifelike, add vividness or vitality to the description and give auditory description to break up a little the visual description that is often felt strenuous to understand. It helps make the implied exquisiteness of the diction more directly to the readers in an auditory way.

(2) Semantic figures of speech 语义修辞格 （what is semantic figure of speech?）

a. Simile ['sɪmɪlɪ] 明喻

Two concepts or two similar things are imaginatively and descriptively compared because they have at least one quality or characteristic in common or in resemblance. The commonest connectives are “like” and “as”.

It’s to draw sharp pictures in the mind through comparisons, to give deeper insight into things, persons and ideas through suggestive association, or to explain abstract, complicated ideas in simple, concrete imagery.

Four basic demands:

 It has simile indicator such as “like”, “as” or “as if ”etc.

 Two things involved in comparison: tenor and vehicle.

 The two things mush be substantially different

 The two things should be similar in at least one quality.

Classification of Simile:

 Descriptive Simile

 Illuminative Simile

 Illustrative Simile

 Closed Simile

 Open Simile

b. Metaphor

Metaphor uses words to indicate something different from their literal meaning--one thing is described in terms of another so as to suggest a likeness or analogy ([ə'nælədʒɪ] 类比，类似) between them.

Classification

Three requirements for metaphor

Common types of Metaphor

c. Metonymy

Metonymy involves the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another. For example, the name of a referent (指示物，指示对象) is substituted by the name of an attribute or entity related in some semantic way or by spatial proximity or by other reasons.

Sources of Metonymy:

 Body part

 Name of a person

 Name of a clear sign of an object or a person

 Name of a place

 Instrument

 Trade mark or brand

 Location

d. Synecdoche [sɪ'nekdəkɪ] 提喻法（以局部代表全部和以全部指部分）

Synecdoche is a figure of speech by which a part is put for the whole，the whole for a part，the species for the genus，the genus for the species，or the name of the material for the thing made.

Types of Synecdoche:

 The part for the whole

 The whole for the part

 The abstract for the concrete, or the concrete for the abstract

 The species for the genus，or the genus for the species

 Name of the material for the thing made:

e. Personification

Personification is a figure of speech which attributes human characteristics to impersonal things, such as animals, inanimate objects, or abstractions.

It is usually employed to add vividness to expression.

f. Synesthesia 通感

As a rhetorical term, synesthesia refers to the mixing of sensations or the stimulation of one sense that produces a mental impression associated with a different sense.

Synesthesia generally takes the following forms：

 Sense of vision mixed with sense of hearing

 Sense of vision mixed with sense of touch

 Sense of touch mixed with sense of hearing

 Sense of taste mixed with sense of hearing

 Sense of vision mixed with sense of taste

 Sense of vision mixed with sense of hearing

 Sense of smell mixed with other sense of modalities

g. Transferred epithet 转移修饰

Transferred epithet is a figure of speech in which an adjective properly modifying one noun is shifted to another noun in the same sentence.

Transferred epithet bears the characteristics of brevity and vividness.

According to the logical relationship between the word modifying and the word modified we can divide transferred epithets into three groups.

 Parallel relationship

 She sat there with embarrassed delight.

 girl.

He's recent kindness was winning a surprised gratitude from the lonely

 Cause-effect/Effect-cause relationship

 He answered with a delighted smile，

 The warrant officer shook his head in numb astonishment

 The child gazed in wide-eyed amazement

 Modifying relationship

 He answered with a helpless smile.

 It is the law,\" remarked the ancient clerk, turning his surprised

spectacles upon him.

 The sky turned to a tender Pallet of pink and blue.

(3) Syntactic figures of speech 句法修辞格

a. Repetition

Repetition is a powerful rhetorical device which creates good rhythm and parallelism to make the language musical, emphatic, attractive and memorable.

Redundancy is a kind of faulty wording, which results from ideological confusion.

Functions of Repetition:

 Knit the ideas together

 Emphasize an idea

 Generate emotional force

Classification of Repetition

b. Parallelism

Parallelism is the repetition of syntactically similar constructions of coordinated sentences or phrases.

Parallelism gives emphasis, clarity and coherence of ideas as well as the rhythm of the language.

 Parallelism is often used in persuasive speech. It is either within a sentence or across sentences, within a paragraph or across paragraphs.

 Parallelism is deeply rooted in our mind. Some people even argue that parallelism should be grouped into grammar because on so many occasions parallelism is a rule and a must.

 Parallelism is often used together with repetition, either verbally or syntactically. They make a very formidable pair in forceful writing of any kind. They help drive home a point.

c. Antithesis

Antithesis is placing contrasting ideas side by side for emphasis and rhythm. The elements (usually two) are contrary in meaning but similar in form.

Arranged this way, the contrasting ideas provide a sharp and forceful way of measuring difference. Antithesis always gives strength, adds vividness and appeals to the audience's emotion. It results in linguistic brevity and rhythmic harmony.

Ways of creating antithesis:

 The use of antonyms

 The reverse of the word order

d. Climax

Climax is the arrangement of words, phrases, clauses or sentences in ascending order of importance.

Ideas arranged in such a way develop gradually, like climbing a ladder, each idea outweighing the preceding one until reaching the summit.

It is extremely effective in stirring up feelings and emotions, and helps to drive home a point.

 Basic requirement:

 The progression of thought in climax must ascend at least three steps.

 Climax is often combined with repetitive devices such as parallelism, anaphora, epihora, etc.

e. Anticlimax

It is defined as “a sudden drop from the dignified or important in thought or expression to the commonplace or trivial, sometimes for humorous effect”; “a sudden often funny change from something noble, serious, exciting, etc., to something foolish, unimportant, or uninteresting esp. in a speech or piece of formal writing”.

It is a figure of speech that involves stating one's thought in a descending order of significance or intensity, from the sublime to the ridiculous, from strong to weak, from weighty to light or frivolous.

f. Syllepsis [sɪ'lepsɪs] 一语双叙法；兼用法；轭语法

It is a construction in which the word that governs two or more other words means differently when it is collocated with these words separately.

Syllepsis is often used for comic or satiric effect. To produce a witty, humorous or satirical effect, it ought to be original and creative.

Structures of syllepsis:

 one verb+two or more nouns or noun phrases

 He opened the door and her heart to the homeless child

 The senator picked up his hat and his courage.

 He lost his coat and his temper.

 one adjective+two or more nouns

 He had short coat-tails and temper.

 Yesterday, he had a blue heart and coat.

 two nouns+one verb

 At length down went her head and out came the truth and tears.

 Time and her aunt moved slowly.

 one proposition+two or more nouns or noun phrases

 He fought with desperation and a stout club.

 She was serving soup with a ladle and a scowl.

 The businessmen left in high spirit and a Cadillac.

g. Zeugma ['zjuːgmə] 轭式修饰法,拈连

Zeugma is a figure of speech in which a word is used to modify or govern two or more words although its use is not grammatically or logically correct with all of them.

Structures of Zeugma:

 one verb+two or more nouns

 We ate a bun and a glass of milk.

 The sun shall not burn thee by day, nor the moon by night.

 At noons, Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humor, put on kimono,

airs, and the water to boil for coffee. (O. Henry)

 one adjective+ two or more nouns

 They went to the graveyard with weeping eyes and hearts.

 one proposition + two or more nouns

 She was dressed in a maid's cap, a pinafore, and a bright smile.

 She left his apartment with tarnished virtue and a new mink.

 two nouns + one noun

 I would my horse had the speed of your tongue.

 When I and my sorrows are dust

h. Chiasmus

It is a construction involving the repletion of words or syntactic elements in reverse order (a b // b a).

Chiasmus serves different purposes in different contexts. On many occasions it serves the purpose of being serious or solemn, witty or humorous. It often achieves aphoristic effect.

Structures of Chiasmus:

 Repetition of the words in reverse order

 Repetition of the syntactic elements in reverse order.

g. Rhetorical question

A rhetorical question is one that does not need an answer, for the answer is suggested by the speaker, or presumed by the speaker to be fairly obvious or probably known to the audience. In a sense, it is the equivalent of a statement.

Functions of Rhetorical question:

 Laying an emphasis, or getting the audience to be more involved and interested.

 Function as a transitional device

 As an emotive device to suggest the speaker's outburst of emotion.

Show a process of reasoning

（4）Logical figures of speech

a. Hyperbole

It refers to a figure of speech where the speaker's description is stronger than is warranted by the state of affairs described, also known as exaggeration or over-statement.

Both hyperbole and understatement have same purpose: to draw the attention of the audience to the subject or the idea so as to lay emphasis on it.

Ways of creating hyperboles:

 By the use of numerals

 By the use of extreme words

 By the use of certain adjectives and adverbs

 By the use of superlative degree of adjectives or adverbs

 By the use of nouns

 By the use of verbs

b. Allusion

Allusion is usually a casual, brief and implicit reference to a famous historical or literary figure or a well-known historical event, which the writer assumes to be familiar to his readers.

Sources of allusions:

 Fairy tales, Myths, Legends and Fables

 The Bible

 English and American Literary Works

 Modern and Contemporary Sources

 Historical Figures

c. Understatement

Understatement is a figure in which an idea is deliberately expressed too weakly. It is therefore the opposite of hyperbole.

d. Euphemism

Euphemism is a figure of speech in which something of an unpleasant, distressing, or indelicate nature is described in less offensive terms, it is the substitution of an inoffensive or pleasant expression for a more unpleasant one, or for a term which evokes more directly a distasteful or taboo subject.

Its function is to give a better sounding name, to soften the shock of reality or, sometimes, to cover up dreadful facts.

e. Paradox

A paradox is a figure of speech consisting of a statement or proposition which on the face of it seems self-contradictory, absurd or contrary to established fact or practice, but which on further thinking and study, may prove to be true,

well-founded, and even to contain a succinct point.

英语的某些警句、格言、谚语中常使用paradox这一辞格，使其说明的哲学道理更生动活泼，言简意赅，给人留下深刻印象。

A friend to every is a friend to nobody.

用于文章中，使文章富于哲理，意味深长，有时还可以使文章显得格外幽默、风趣。

In fact, it appears that the teachers of English teach English so poorly largely because they teach Grammar so well

在某些新闻标题或文章题目以及广告中也常用这一辞格，使之不但醒目而且简洁。

One of the first things about owning it is selling it

f. Oxymoron

An Oxymoron is a compressed paradox, formed by the conjoining of two contrasting, contradictory or incongruous terms.

 adj. + noun

 a living death

 conspicuous absence

            

tearful joy

jarring concor

adj.+adj.

cold pleasant manner

poor rich guys

adv+adj.

dully bright

mercifully fatal

verb +adv.

hasten slowly

shine darkly

noun +noun

a love-hate relationship

The Effects:

 revealing strong feelings

 No light, but only darkness visible

 showing striking contrasts

 The mother is undergoing the joyful pain, and the

painful joy of childbirth.

 having humorous and ironic effects

 I like a smuggler. He is the only honest thief

 playing concise and comprehensive roles

 Dudly Field Malone called my conviction a \"victorious

defeat\".

g. Allegory

Allegory is a story in verse or prose with a double meaning: a primary or surface meaning, and a secondary or under-the-surface meaning. Allegory is in

essence a figurative representation of some abstract truth by the use of symbolic language.

Allegories are effective in teaching or explaining some abstract idea.

（二） Comparison between figures and some questions

1. Difference between metaphor and simile: in simile the comparison is explicit，while in metaphor the comparison is implied.

2. Differences between metaphor and metonymy：

 Metaphor can be converted into simile，while metonymy can not;

 Metaphor appeals to the readers’ imagination for similarity between the two different objects in two different domains; while metonymy appeals to the reader's imagination for the association of ideas it provokes within the same domain. ([də(ʊ)'meɪn] 领域；域名；产业；地产)

 The whole world is a stage.

 She is a peacock.

 The kettle is boiling.

 He likes to read Hemingway

3. Distinction between Metonymy and Synecdoche:

 With synecdoche，the relationship between the two things involved is part-and-whole: that is，one thing is a part of the other. whereas，with metonymy, the two things involved are completely different.

 Her heart ruled her head.

 He paid the workers $5 per head.

4. Similarities and differences between Syllepsis and Zeugma:

 They both involve a key word that is used to modify or govern two or more words in the sentence. The key words in syllepsis usually refers correctly to both or all the words it modifies or governs; while, in zeugma, the key word refers correctly to at least one of them.

5. Differences between climax and Anticlimax

 Climax usually needs at least three \"steps\" up the ladder to achieve effect, but anticlimax sometimes needs only two steps of descends to gain emphasis.

 Anticlimax is often employed to humorous effects ridicule or satire.

6. Differences between parallelism and antithesis:

7. What is semantic figure of speech and what is syntactic speech?

8. 积极修辞和消极修辞的分类(翻以前笔记看)

9. I Have A Dream 和 Spring 的修辞分析